Science Notebook

Blood Typing Lab Report 

Introduction:

The immune system's cells are constantly patrolling in order to keep out pathogens. Without the immune system, our bodies would be overwhelmed with infections. Blood transfusions must be performed with great care because of the immune system. In this lab we are testing to see what our peer's blood type is. It is extremely important to be aware of what your blood type is, so that if you ever have a blood transfusion the donor's blood type will be the same as yours. If your blood type is not the same, the donor's cells will be treated as foreign invaders and your immune system will attack them accordingly. 

Purpose:

What is Isaac's ABO and Rh blood type?

Hypothesis:

If his blood has antigen Rh and only antigen Rh presenting on the surface of his red blood cells, then the blood will agglutinate when placed in anti-Rh antiserum, because the Rh antibodies in the serum clump around the Rh antigens that are presented on his red blood cells. 

Materials:

Our lab included eight different materials:

• Blood typing slide 
• Antisera A & B
• Anti- Rh factor
• Mixing Stick
• Lancet 
• Blood 
• Disposable pipettes 
• Gloves

Procedure:

1. Using a plastic pipette place a drop of synthetic anti- A in well A of the blood typing slide. 
2. Place a drop of synthetic anti- B serum to the well labeled B.
3. Add a drop of synthetic anti- Rh serum in the well labeled C. 
4. Sterilize the finger and then using a lancet prick the finger to draw blood.
5. Squeeze the finger to draw blood and then use 3 different mixing stick to put a drop of blood in each well.
6. Using the mixing sticks stir the blood mixtures.
7. Look at each well and notice if there is clumping or not. 
8. Record the results in data table.

Trial	Reaction WIth A (Y/N)	Reaction WIth B (Y/N)	Reaction WIth Rh (Y/N)	Blood type
Isaac	N	N	Y	O+

Conclusion:

Red blood cells are classified by whether or not that carry three different antigens, A, B, and Rh. Antigens are proteins that can be found on the outside of cells. Blood contains antibodies that examine and detect pathogens. When the antibodies come in contact with pathogens or unrecognizable cells, the antibodies signals for a greater amount of antibodies to be produced. These antibodies then swarm around the foreign invaders, which then signals for the white blood cells to attack said pathogen. It is extremely important to be aware of what your blood type is, so that if you ever have a blood transfusion the donor's blood type will be the same as yours. If your blood type is not the same, the donor's cells will be treated as foreign invaders and your immune system will attack them accordingly. We determined that Isaac's blood type was O+ because his blood agglutinated when to anti Rh antiserum. Since a similar reaction did not occur with the other to antisera, his blood does not have a or b antigens present in his blood cells.
The results of this lab were completely conclusive and we did not encounter any significant variables. Next time it would seem safer to carry out this lab in a more sanitary environment and look at the results under a microscope. 

 Immunology Flipped Classroom

• Immune system- keep pathogens out (proteins, virus, bacteria, parasite, fungus)
• First line of defense- skin, mucous membranes, stomach acid 
• Both first and second line of defense are innate/ non-specific
• Second line of defense- inflammatory response, phagocytes
• The first line of defense is on the outside of your body and the second line of defenses are on the inside. The second line of defense will continue to fight the pathogens that made it past the first line. 
• A type of cell withing in the body capable of engulfing and absorbing bacteria and other small cells and particles.
• Innate- born with, Non- specific- from environment, not specific 
• MHC- the "wanted poster" 

Viruses

• complex collection of organic matter that is able to self replicate
• mostly have shell of protein 
• inside have DNA or RNA
• enzymes to replicate
• is a piece of genetic info.
• microscopic, ingest and inhale millions per second, not all are bad 

Steps:

1. must inhabit a cell to replicate
2. virus uses protein code with molecular receptors to bind with membrane of cell
3. determines what cell they can infect 
4. once combined uses 7 different biological pathways to force to either...
5. accept their genetic material 
6. take in entire virus 
7. when in cell...
8. virus uses molecular arsenol to hijack cell's protein manufacturing system 
9. now virus is in cell's DNA 
10. cell continues to replicate (viruses) in DNA
11. viruses start to take over protein manufacturing ribosomes 
12. cell becomes so full of viruses it bursts
13. they all spread to replicate again

Vaccine Ingredients Vocab. 

Polio

• 9 ingredients
• 6 are safe
• 3 toxic in high quantities
• suspicious: M-199 has very limited research

DTaP

• treats tetnis and pertesis
• 15 ingredients
• 10 toxic
• has aluminium phosphate--> same in makeup, soil and paper
• suspicious: Latham mediums

HIB (Haemophilus influenza type B)

• ​HIB treats influenza
• 12 ingredients
• Salt, sugar, lactose
• Milk based proteins modified Mueller and Miller medium could potentially be toxic
• Suspicious: synthetic mediums had limited mediums

Hepatitis B

• Brand #1 has 5 ingredients
• Brand #2 has 9 ingredients
• Aluminum Hydroxide combined with Kidney failure can be fatal
• Suspicious: ​Mineral salts have limited research

Hepatitis A

• Cures liver failure caused by feisis
• 16 ingredients
• Fetus sack of aborted babies is used in this vaccine
• Sodium Chloride, and Antibiotics are toxic in large quantities
• Suspicious: Amorphous Aluminum Hydroxyphosphate sulfate.
• 
  

Varicella/Chickenpox/Varivax

• 15 ingredients
• Sucrose and Hydrolyzed gelatin were toxic
• suspicious: Human embryonic lung cell cultures, guinea pig cell culture, fetal bovine serum (baby cow serum)

HPV

• Takes away warts and prevent genetal infections
• 10 ingredients
• Amorphous Aluminum Hydroxyphosphate can go into the wrong blood stream and cause brain neuro changes
• suspicious: Sodium borate, Mineral Salts, vitamins

Science Assessment #7 Revamp

The score I earned on the science assessment was a 44%. I really struggled with the test because I did not study and I rushed through it. After a discussion with my group, we came to the conclusion that we all struggled with numbers 18 and 21 on the test. 

18. Select the primary consumers from the above food web.

1. Python
2. Wolf
3. Eagle
4. Rat
5. Frog
6. Dragonfly
7. Thrush
8. Fruit Fly 
9. Butterfly
10. Grasshopper
11. Mangoes
12. Lavenders
13. A flowering plant
14. Corn

I answered that mangoes, lavenders, a flowering plant, and corn were primary consumers because I thought that they were the ones that started the food web. 

The video above was produced by Khan Academy and explains how energy and matter flows and is recycled from primary producers to primary, secondary and tertiary producers. Khan Academy is probably one of the most popular resources for students in the world, so I am very positive that this video is reliable. The video explained what I was unsure about during the test. 

21. Mushrooms are photoautotrophs. (True/ False.)

For this question I answered that mushrooms are photoautotrophs, so I circled that the statement was true. Almost all of my group members answered this question incorrectly as well. 

This video reminded my group that Mushrooms are fungi, therefore they are can not be fungi. The video seems to reliable because it mentions facts that we have learned in class and we double checked the information by using google. 

Ecology Vocab. #3

• Fauna (noun) - The animal life in an area. 
• Flora (noun) - Plant life in an area.
• Food Web (noun) - Many food chains put together to show how energy flows through the ecosystem.
• Food Chain (noun) - The order in which animals feed on plants and other animals (shows how energy flows from producer- consumer- decomposer). 
• Population (noun) - All the members of one species that live in one area. 
• Predator (noun)- An animal that hunts, kills, and eats other animals. 
• Prey (noun) - An animal that hunted, killed and eaten by other animals. 
• Producer (noun) - An organism that can make its own food. 
• Primary Consumer (noun) - Animals that eat primary producers; they are also called herbivores. 
• Secondary Consumer (noun) - Animals that eat primary consumers. They are carnivores and omnivores. 
• Tertiary Consumer (noun) - A carnivore at the top of the food chain that feeds on other carnivores; an animal that feeds on only secondary consumers. 

Ecology Vocab. #2

• Decomposers (noun) - An organism, such as bacteria or fungus, that breaks down dead matter and returns nutrients to soil. 
• Estuary (noun) - A body of water where freshwater and saltwater ecosystems merge together (marine and freshwater ecosystems will be present here). 
• Habitat (noun) - The place and surroundings where an organism normally lives. 
• Herbivores (noun) - An organism that eats only plants 
• Host (noun) - A living organism on which a parasite lives
• Limiting factor (noun) - Something in an environment that keeps the population of an organism from increasing as much as it could. 
• Niche (noun) - The habitat that supplies everything needed for an organism to survive.
• Omnivores (noun) - A consumer that eats both plants and meats. 
• Parasite (noun) - an organism that lives in or on another organism (called the host). 

Fossil Fuels

- Fossil Fuels- a group of energy sources that were formed from ancient plants and organisms during carboniferous period approximately 360 to 386 million years ago

- land covered with swamps, as they died sank to bottom of swamps and oceans and started decomposing under sand, clay, and other minerals 

- Fossil fuels differentiate based on organic matter, time, temperature, and pressure conditions while decomposing 

- coal, oil and natural gas three main fossil fuels 

- energy sources due to high energy density, world dominate source of energy

- electricity, transport fuels, plastics, cosmetics, medicines

- power industrialization

- abundant and cheap or scarce and expensive based on location

- non- renewable (not replenished in human lifetimes)

- Largest emitters of CO2---- environmental and human health issues

- alternate sources that are environmentally friendly 

Water Lab

pH of Ocean Water:

- pH = acidity of solution

- pH levels fluctuate 

- low number is acidic high number is alkaline

- environment can affect pH levels

- pH strips- filter paper soaked with pH indicators 

- color depends on characteristics of chemical change 

- pH indicators are weak acids or bases 

- Some color changes are more complicated

- The release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere , then absorbed by ocean

- pH has been 8.2 for past 300 million years, but is now 8.1

- Ocean becoming more acidic 

- Acid is molecule or other entity that can donate a proton or accept an electron pair in other reactions

- Base a molecule that accepts protons 

- Proton a particle found in nucleus with a positive charge

- Ion an atom or molecule with a net electric charge

Chlorine and Led in Tap Water:

- Tap water comes from rivers, sewer, ponds and ground 

- Only 2% is potable (drinkable)

- Chlorine a toxic, irritant, pale green gas

- kills bacteria and microbiological organisms 

- Chlorine reacts with other chemicals creating subcompound making it more harmful

- Led is blue white color but as it reacts with air around it turns dark grey 

- Never safe

- Lead piping, used for making pipes gets into water

- soft or corrosive 

- affects air pollution, soil, organ damage, moves through ecosystem 

- Potable: safe to drink, drinkable 

- Microbiological:  dealing with microrganisms

- Corrosive: erosive eating away

Pond Water: 

- pond is pool of water and sun can penetrate to the bottom 

- Microscopic - phytoplankton 

- ponds do not have movement 

- Organisms' outputs remain in water 

- Bacteria breaks down organic waste and ammonia

- Macroscopic anything that isn't microscopic

- Photoautotrophs synthesize own food using energy 

- Heterotrophs cannot manufacture its own food instead obtains food and energy by taking in organic substances 

The Water Cycle

Water is crucial to the survival of almost all life on Earth. One half of the human body is water, and cells are over 70% water, so fresh water is very crucial to one's survival. . Saltwater makes up 97.5 % of Earth's water, and freshwater makes up the remaining 2.5 percent. However, only 1% of Earth's fresh water is accessible. This graph shows where fresh water can be found. Lakes and rivers make up 0.3%, groundwater makes up 30.8%, and glaciers and permanent snow cover make up 68.9% of where the world's freshwater is located.  Because there is such a small amount of fresh water it can affect ecosystems very negatively. 

 A water molecule spends one week in a living organism, 1.5 weeks in atmospheric (fog, rain, snow) , 2 weeks in river, 2 weeks - 1 year as soil moisture, 1 - 10 years in swamps, and 10 years in lakes. A water molecule spends much more time in bigger reservoirs, spending 4,000 years in Oceans, 2 weeks - 10,000 years in Groundwater, and 1,000 - 10,000 years in glaciers and permafrost. The amount of time a water molecule spends in certain reservoirs may limit its availability due to the amount of time it take to mover from one place to another.

 

 

Intro to Ecology 

Vocabulary:

• Ecology (noun) - The study of how living things interact with one another and their environment
• Ecosystem (noun) - All the living and nonliving things in an area and their interactions
• Abiotic Factor (noun) - The part of the ecosystem that is not alive and has never been alive
• Biotic Factor (noun) - The part of the ecosystem that is alive 
• Adaptation (noun) - A characteristic that helps an organism survive in its environment 
• Biome (noun) - A plant and animal community that covers a large part of the Earth
• Detritivore (noun) - An organism (as an earthworm or fungus) that feeds on dead and decomposing matter 
• Community (noun) - A group of organisms living together in a certain area
• Consumers (noun) - An organism that survives by eating producers or other consumers in its ecosystem
• Carnivore (noun) - An organism that eats only other consumers (meat eater)
• Deforestation (verb) - The cutting down and clearing of forest land- will usually lead to increased soil erosion in this area

Activity:

For our intro to ecology activity we were given various cards that had the name of certain organisms that lived in a certain habitats. Each person was given a card and had to connect themselves with the other organisms they ate. Once everyone was connected by string we had to go through the vocabulary and see which terms applied to the organism we were and write them down on our cards. Once we finished we had one group member document the final result. 

Honors Flipped Classroom

DNA --- RNA --- Proteins 

The function of DNA

1. Gene Coding

2. Replication

3. Codes for Proteins

DNA replication

- Helicase- enzyme, protein, breaks hydrogen bond in half 

- DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to the correct bases on the original bases on the original strands and connects them

- exposed side lines up the direction, "you can only lay down on 3' side" 

DNA Splitting and Replication

- 4 nitrogenous bases:

Adenine, Cysotine, Guanine, Thymine 

- Hydrogen bond- little connector that goes down the middle of the double helix, making easier to split in half. (In the bond AT go together and CG go together).

- Single base (pyrimidine) connects with the double carbon base (purine) 

- Thymine and Cytosine are prymidines, and Adenine and Guanine are purines

- Hydrogen bonds between nitrogen bases are easily split 

- Strands of DNA are anti parallel, meaning they are parallel but they flow in different directions

- The 4 nitrogenous bases are very weak so that they can easily split

- For DNA to be replicated it needs to be split in half by the hydrogen bond

- An enzyme called Helicase breaks the hydrogen bond in half (think of it like scissors)

-Because they are no longer paired after unzipping they become open bases

- If not completely detached, then it becomes replication fork

- DNA replication- the process in which one DNA strand splits and turns into two perfect duplicates of the DNA strand. 

- Leading strand is unbroken  (5' --- 3') & lagging strand is broken (3'--- 5')

RNA and Protein Synthesis

- Uracil- a compound found in living tissue as a constituent base of RNA, in DNA its place is taken by Thymine.
- Protein Functions- antibody, enzyme, messenger, structural component, transport/storage
- Amino acids- play central role as building blocks of proteins, they are attached to one another in long chains, the sequence of amino acids determine each protein's unique three dimensional structure and function
- RNA- ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid present in all living cells. Its principal role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins, although in some viruses RNA rather than DNA carries the genetic information.
- mRNA - Messenger RNA: Encodes amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.
- tRNA - Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to ribosomes during translation.
- rRNA - Ribosomal RNA: With ribosomal proteins, makes up the ribosomes, the organelles that translate the mRNA
- Codon- a sequence of three nucleotides that together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule
-  Ribosomes- a minute particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins, found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of living cells. They bind messenger RNA and transfer RNA to synthesize polypeptides and proteins.
- Polypeptide chains- a bunch of amino acids linked together

Protein Synthesis and Mutations

- Mutation- a change in DNA, a permanent alteration in in the DNA sequence that makes up the gene
- Protein Synthesis- a process where by which individual cells build their own proteins, both DNA and RNA are involved in this process
- Missense mutation- This type of mutation is a change in one DNA base pair that results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in the protein made by a gene.
- Nonsense mutation- A nonsense mutation is also a change in one DNA base pair. Instead of substituting one amino acid for another, however, the altered DNA sequence prematurely signals the cell to stop building a protein. This type of mutation results in a shortened protein that may function improperly or not at all.
Insertion mutation- An insertion changes the number of DNA bases in a gene by adding a piece of DNA. As a result, the protein made by the gene may not function properly.
- Deletion mutation- A deletion changes the number of DNA bases by removing a piece of DNA. Small deletions may remove one or a few base pairs within a gene, while larger deletions can remove an entire gene or several neighboring genes. The deleted DNA may alter the function of the resulting protein(s).
- Duplication mutation- A duplication consists of a piece of DNA that is abnormally copied one or more times. This type of mutation may alter the function of the resulting protein.
- Sickle cell anemia- The disease is caused by a mutated version of the gene that helps make hemoglobin — a protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells. People with two copies of the sickle cell gene have the disease. People who carry only one copy of the sickle cell gene do not have the disease, but may pass the gene on to their children.
- Frameshift mutation- genetic mutation caused by deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read

Who Killed Romeo and Juliet?

Electrophoresis Gel Box 

Romeo and Juliet did not commit suicide, they were murdered! For this lab we have to make an electrophoresis box and extract the multiple suspect's DNA so that we can find out who was really responsible for the heartbreaking deaths of the young lovers.

What is Gel Electrophoresis?
Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate and view macromolecules (DNA, RNA, and proteins). During this process the DNA is put into gel and then a current is applied across the gel. In result the macromolecules separate based on mass. Dyes are also added so that the process is visible. 

Making the Gel Electrophoresis box:
Materials

• small box with lid 
• stainless steel wire 
• wire cutters
• 9 volt batteries
• alligator clip leads
• styrofoam flat piece 
• scissors 

Extracting DNA: 
Materials

• 2 teaspoons (10 ml) 0.9 percent salt water (2 teaspoons table salt in one quart/liter of water)
• disposable plastic cups
• large test tube or any clear sealed with cover (one for each DNA sample you will collect)
• 1 teaspoon (5 ml) 25 percent mild detergent or dishwashing soap (1 volume detergent or soap plus 3 volumes of water)
• 2 teaspoons (10 ml) 95 percent ethanol, chilled on ice 
• 5 ml methylene blue solution for each DNA sample
• Pipette and disposable pipette tips
• Baking soda 
• Deionized water

Procedure: 

1. Cut two pieces of wire with wire cutters
2. Bend the wires so that they hook over the sides (wire at the top will be negative electrode and wire at bottom will be positive electrode)
3. Connect your 9 volt batteries together in a series